PMC

The neurons were revealed by Golgi silver impregnation in Drosophila melanogaster (The figure was modified from Meinertzhagen and O'Neil , after Fischbach and Dittrich ). A wide-field amacrine neuron (Am, designated Lai by Fischbach and Dittrich ) and wide-field serotonin-immunoreactive tangential neuron (5-HT-IR Tan). B The different types of narrow-field neurons of the lamina (and one wide-field neuron: Tan, designated Lat by Fischbach and Dittrich ) and their relationships in the 10 medulla strata comprise: R1–R6, terminate in the lamina; R7 and R8, in the medulla; L1–L5 lamina monopolar neurons; C2 and C3 narrow-field centrifugal neurons; T1, a narrow-field centripetal neuron with input in the lamina; and Tan (originally called La wf1), a wide-field tangential neuron. A second type of tangential neuron, La wf 2, illustrated by Fischbach and Dittrich , is not incorporated in this figure.

The Golgi apparatus in wild type motor neurons. (A) An electron micrograph showing part of the typical Golgi ribbon in a mouse lumbar spinal cord motor neuron. (B) Schematic representation of some of the molecular players involved in the organization of the wild type Golgi. Polymerization of microtubules (MT) at the cis-Golgi depends on TBCE which mediates cross talk with ARF1-mediated COPI vesicle biogenesis [box 1]. Golgi microtubules nucleated by GCC185/CLASPs at the trans-Golgi play a role in Golgi ribbon linking [box 2]. The formation of the Golgi ribbon at the cis side is mediated by the tethering complex GRASP65/GM130 [box 3]. COPI vesicle fusion is mediated by the tethering complex p115/GM130 and SNARE complexes containing GS15, GS28, and Syntaxin 5 [box4].

Dopamine receptor type 2 (DRD₂) immunoreactivity is observable in neuronal bodies and processes in the layers of the cerebellar cortex. In the ML:DRD₂ immunoreactive basket and stellate neuron cell bodies (arrows), DRD₂ immunoreactive primary, secondary, and apical dendrites of Purkinje neurons, DRD₂ immunoreactive Purkinje neuron cell bodies (single asterisk). In the granular layer, DRD₂ immunoreactivity in space of Held; DRD₂ immunoreactive Golgi neuron cell body (arrow) (Scale bar: 20 μm).

(A) Schematic of Golgi structural dynamics during mitosis and disease or stress conditions. Images show representative intact and fragmented Golgi phenotypes (courtesy of Dr. Yanzhuang Wang, University of Michigan). Primary hippocampal neurons were treated with control or amyloid-beta peptides and stained for Golgi reassembly-stacking protein of 65 kDa, GRASP65 (green) and neuron marker, NeuN (red). Scale bars in all images, 10 μm. (B) Example of supervised Golgi HCA workflow (). Reference samples were chosen to manually pre-define Golgi phenotypes. Single vector machine (SVM), one type of machine learning algorithm, then developed a classification model based on whichever features distinguished the phenotypes from each other. The resulting model was then applied to new samples to quantify the presence of these phenotypes. (C) Example of unsupervised method to classify and cluster Golgi fragmentation phenotypes in siRNA gene knockdown cells (). Machine learning was applied on mock control cells to separate control-like and non-control-like states without pre-specifying phenotypes. Non-control-like phenotypes were then clustered according to a Gaussian mixture model (GMM), a probabilistic model that learns the differences between normally distributed but potentially overlapping subpopulations, i.e. one specific Golgi phenotype, within an overall population, i.e. all Golgi phenotypes. Created with BioRender.com.